The world at the end of the Res Publica, or the Roman Republic (by that I am referring to the few years before 44 BCE, when Julius Caesar was assasinated), was marked by political turmoil and civil wars. For example, The Gracchi Reforms, by giving "state-owned" land to poor citizens, intensified the conflict between the Assembly of the People and the Senate (or projected more widely, the conflict between the factions of the Populares and the Optimates). The reforms by Gaius Marius made it easier for warlords to build massive armies, which indirectly resulted in a civil war between Cornelius Sulla and Marius (the reforms of Marius were ultimately used against him by Sulla when Sulla marched on Rome and crossed the Rubicon River- an act of declaration of war). In addition to this, Marius also promoted the interests of legionaries and soldiers, and he made money more available for the legionaries if their warlords were victorious, encouraging soldiers to conquer more territories with their generals. These reforms laid the seeds for future conflicts when different generals amassed armies to fight against each other.
Emerging conflicts at the end of the Republic may be outlined as follows:
A most notable example of conflicts is that between the first triumvirate - more specifically, between Caesar and Pompey (Crassus was the wealthiest man in Rome but did not have a large military, so was not in a great position to compete). All of these factional leaders sought for gloria and dignitas - glory and political and social standing - two of the most important qualities of elite and aspiring Roman citizens. Caesar emerged victorious in this conflict and became dictator for life, making reforms, such as canceling debts and creating settlements for landless veteran soldiers.
After his assassination on the Ides of March in 44 BCE, his nephew Octavian and his supporter Mark Antony firstly defeated their enemy - more specifically, the enemies of Caesar (most notably Brutus and Cassius) at Philippi, before they fought against each other. Finally, Octavian came out victorious against Antony at the naval battle at Actium, establishing an autocracy of a Roman empire (or the Principate as Octavian called it), thus ending the political violence and turmoil that had raged across the Roman world for the past century.
This new Principate signaled a grand new era of peace and prosperity, yet, at the same time, it also signaled the beginning of centuries-long era of autocratic rule, with Augustus at the top.
The change of regime and politics also marked a change of lifestyle for Roman elites and citizens. Some poets at that time aimed to discern this change using witty language. Three poets, in particular, attempted to understand, coexist, and adapt to the new society. In this essay I will aim to connect the three poets Lucretius, Horace, and Ovid with these times of radical change, specifically how their poetry connects with and tells us about the political revolution. At the end of the Roman Republic, these three witty poets endeavored to understand the world by what we might call rational or even scientific method, to adapt to this change by flattering Augustus, or to coexist with the change by explaining it.